Subclinical Mastitis of Buffaloes in Asia: Prevalence, Pathogenesis, Risk Factors, Antimicro-bial resistance, and Current Treatment Strategies

Subclinical mastitis (SCM) remains a significant challenge in buffalo farming across Asia, impacting both animal welfare and economic productivity. In this review, we assessed the status, pathogenesis, risk factors, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and therapeutic measures associated with SCM in buffalo populations. This study revealed a pooled prevalence of SCM in Asia at 41.51% (2513/6054; 95% CI: 40.26-42.76) with considerable variation observed across different regions. Notably, Turkey exhibited the highest pooled prevalence at 61.1% (95% CI: 43.46-76.86), while Nepal reported the lowest pooled prevalence at 23.7% (95% CI: 19.15-28.82). <italic>Staphylococcus </italic>spp. emerged as the most common mastitogen with the California Mastitis Test (CMT) identified as the primary diagnostic method. Risk factors for SCM exhibited variability among studies, reflecting the diverse husbandry practices and environmental conditions across Asian buffalo farming regions. Furthermore, AMR poses a significant concern, with beta-lactam antibiotics (penicillin, ampicillin, oxacillin) commonly found to be resistant in many studies. Herbal therapy derived from both animal and plant sources, along with immunotherapy, emerged as effective strategies for controlling and preventing SCM and clinical mastitis in buffalo. Importantly, these approaches offer promising solutions for combating AMR while promoting sustainable mastitis management practices in Asian buffalo farming. The review emphasizes the need to understand the prevalence, causes, and management of SCM in buffaloes across Asia, calling for targeted interventions and further research to tackle this widespread issue.